Please help me out with the two research paper review. I attached the rubric, 2 research paper, and 1 review worksheet. Please submit 2 review worksheet for each paper. Thanks.

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Please help me out with the two research paper review. I attached the rubric, 2 research paper, and 1 review worksheet. Please submit 2 review worksheet for each paper. Thanks.

Please help me out with the two research paper review. I attached the rubric, 2 research paper, and 1 review worksheet. Please submit 2 review worksheet for each paper. Thanks.
The Effect of Age on White and Golden Crowned Sparrows ’ Territory Defense Carolyn Drescher University of California, Santa Barbara Abstract There are several driving factors of bird foraging patterns and territory defense. Resource holding potential and asymmetry of value are important driving factors in a bird’s willingness and ability to defend territory. Resource holding potential (RHP), in this case, applies how the age of a bird gives differing fighting abilities between birds in the same species. White crowned sparrows and golden crowned sparrows were studied to compare the fighting abilities of the immature versus the adult male birds to determine how RHP impacts fight outcomes. Bird interactions were observed over feeding piles at Lake Los Carneros to generate a data set of win/loss outcomes for various bird species. In both the white crowned and the golden crowned sparrows, the adult bi rds had significantly more win outcomes over the immature birds of the same species. This study supports the idea that resource holding potential generates a greater ability for birds to fight, and that adult birds have greater fighting abilities than their immature counterparts. Introduction Animals have different tactics for foraging and territory defense. Birds specifically have foraging adaptations that reflect anti -predator strategies, which help protect their resources for themselves and their young ( Fernandez -Juricic) . Bird foraging can be compared to predation in the sense that there is a cost and benefit analysis to determine the value of the food (Thomasson) . This study looked at immature and adult white cr owned and golden crowned sparrows to compare the ability of the immature vs the mature birds to fight. The difference between the adult and immature sparrows in terms of fighting for resources is resource holding potential. While the immature birds and adu lts are of roughly equal sizes, the adult birds have a competitive advantage through motivation to defend a resource. The older adult birds may have greater asymmetry of value for the resource, because of a greater amount of energy/time invested in a habit at. This means the adults are more willing to fight for territory. Additionally, age correlated plumage patterns can act as an indicator of a bird’s fighting ability because it is an indication of the bird’s age (“Bird Competition Lab Protocol”) . In whit e crowned (WCSP) and golden crowned sparrows (GCSP), the birds have several morphological indicators of age. Both species belong to the genus of Zonotrichia , which is the genus of sparrows. The species can be deciphered from each other from distinct black and white stripes on the crown of the white -crowned sparrow’s head, and a black and gold crown on the golden crowned sparrow ( Meier ). When the WCSP are immature, they have brown and tan crowns, compared with the black and white stripes on th e mature birds ( “Bird Competition Lab Protocol” ). Immature GCSPs have a rusty stripe on the cap with a yellow stripe on top of the crown ( “Golden -Crowned Sparrow Identification ”). Previous research has indicated that there is a positive correlation betwe en resource holding potential and male reproductive success (Kelly). Testing this theory through these sparrows would reveal if bird reproduction is significantly impacted by the resource holding potential, in this case age, of the sparrows. This study i nvestigated the effect of bird age/maturity had on competitive ability and thus mating potential. This was done through comparing the number of dominant fight outcomes between immature and adult white crowned sparrows and golden crowned sparrows. It was predicted that mature male birds will have greater success in fighting immature male birds. Specifically, the adult white crowned sparrow versus the immature white crowned sparrow and the adult golden crowned sparrow compared to the immature white and golden crowned sparrow. This is because the adult sparrow has more resource holding potential because of their age and experience as territory defenders. Methods The data for this experiment was collected via observation of birds in the wild. This observatio n occurred at Lake Los Carneros. Six piles of bird seed were laid out around the lake and researchers observed the interactions between birds at these feeding grounds. Among the interactions observed were between adult white crowned sparrows and immature w hite crowned sparrows, and adult golden crowned sparrows and immature golden crowned sparrows. The outcomes of social interactions between the birds were recorded; the outcomes were referred to as “displacements,” where the winner of the interaction newly occupies the space in which the loser once did. The observations were compiled into a data set to determine the relative importance of sex, size, and age in bird mating patterns. The data for this research was compiled from observations in both 2011 and 2022. The data was then interpreted and analyzed. Using the data collected specifically from the white crowned adult and immature sparrows and the golden crowned adult and immatur e sparrows, a binomial test was conducted for each species to determine whether the adult birds won a significantly greater number of times when fighting against immature birds of their same species. For these binomial tests a one tailed distribution was u sed, because there was previous knowledge that resource holding potential would make for a greater fighter in these birds, and given that the adults have greater resource holding potential it was likely that the adults would win significantly greater amoun ts of fights. Thus, we used a one tailed binomial test to refute the null hypothesis that the adult white crowned/golden crowned sparrow do not have a significantly greater number of wins than their immature counterparts. A Chi -squared test was then conduc ted to analyze the data between the white crowned and golden crowned sparrows. This allowed us to determine whether there is a correlation between adult bird winning and species. Chi squared tests are always two tailed. Results White Crowned Sparrow : The binomial test was conducted to determine whether adults and immature WCSPs had a significantly different number of wins. The null hypothesis for this test is that the adults do not have a significantly greater number of wins than their immature counterpar ts. Adult WCSPs had 86 wins against immature WCSPs, and immature WCSPs had 16 wins against adult WCSPs (Table 2 ). Because the test was one tailed, the k value at alpha=0.05 is 0.8224. The r crit value was 42.154. The r rare value was 16 (Two tailed binomial test, N=102, r=16 , rcrit =42.154 ). Because r crit was greater than r rare we reject the null hypothesis that there is not a significantly different number of wins between the adult and immature white crowned sparrows. Golden Crowned Spa rrow Adults vs. Immature: The adult GCSPs had 9 wins against immature GCSPs, and the immature GCSPs had 1 win against the adult GCSPs ( Table 1 ). The null hypothesis of this test is that the adults do not have a significantly greater number of wins than the ir immature counterparts. The binomial test to determine if the GCSPs had a significantly greater number of wins between the adults and the immatures also had an alpha of 0.05 and a k value of 0.8224 (Two tailed binomial test, N=10, r=1 , r crit =1.772 ). The rcrit was calculated to be 1.772. The r rare for the GCSPs was 1. Because r crit is greater than r rare the null hypothesis is rejected. X2 Test: The x 2 test was conducted to determine if there is a correlation between adult wins and species using the number of wins and losses from each adult sparrow population (Figure 2) . The null hypothesis is that adult winning and species are independent of each other. The degrees of freedom was one, and the alpha value was 0.05, resulting in a X 2crit of 3.84. The x 2 value was calculated to equal 0.324. X 2crit is greater than X 2, so the null hypothesis fails to be rejected. Discussion The data from this study revealed that the age of white crowned and golden crowned sparrows significantly impacts the out come of fights between adult and immature birds, and the adult birds win a significant number of those fights . From the binomial test between the white crowned sparrow adult and immature birds, we rejected the null hypothesis and could conclude that adult white crowned sparrows win a significant number of the fights against immature white crowned sparrows. Similarly, in the binomial test between the immature and adult golden crowned sparrows, the null hypothesis was rejected and can conclude that the adult golden crowned sparrow wins a significant number of the fights against the immature GCSPs. Additionally, the chi -squared test comparing the relationship between adult wining and sparrow species failed to reject the null hypothesis, concluding that the num ber of times an adult sparrow wins a fight with the immature sparrow is independent of the species. These statistical tests indicate that the resource holding potential of the adult sparrows gives a significant competitive advantage against immature sparro ws. The chi -squared test additionally revealed that the adult winning is independent of sparrow species, indicating that adults have a greater ability to defend resources and territories among a variety of bird species. There are also several ways in whi ch this study could be improved. The dataset could have been larger, creating more data points which would generate clearer observable trends between the different species. Additionally, a source of error for this research is the fact that the data is set is viewable before conducting the analysis. This creates bias in the tests being run and the functionality of the study by already having a grasp of the trends in the data. However, overall t his research supports the current theories of resource holding p otential and asymmetry of value creating fighting capabilities and incentive for animal behavior and territory defense. The data from this research did support the hypothesis that adult male birds will have greater success when fighting immature birds. Specifically through looking at white crowned and golden crowned sparrows, data was able to be collected and analyzed between adults and immature birds of the same species. Because the adults still had significantly greater wins over the immature birds wit hin the same species, this begs the question of how kin selection and genetic relations play into this resource defense; this could be interesting future research for this study. Literature Cited Arnberg, Nina N et al. “Social Network Structure in Wintering Golden -Crowned Sparrows Is Not Correlated with Kinship.” Molecular ecology 24.19 (2015): 5034 –5044. Web. “Bird Competition Lab Protocol.” EEMB138. GauchoSpace. February 21, 2022. Fernandez -Juricic, Esteban. et al. “The Visual Fields of Two Ground -Foraging Birds, House Finches and House Sparrows, Allow for Simultaneous Foraging and Anti -Predator Vigilance.” Ibis (London, England) 150.4 (2008): 779 –787. Web. “Golden -Crowned Sparrow Identification, All about Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology.” , All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology , https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Golden – crowned_Sparrow/id#. Kaufman, Kenn. “Crowned Sparrows: Details to Look for on White -Throated, White -Cr owned, Golden -Crowned, and Harris’s Sparrows.” Birder’s world 18.6 (2004): 70 –. Print. Kelly, C.D. The interrelationships between resource -holding potential, resource -value and reproductive success in territorial males: How much variation can we explain?. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 62, 855 –871 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265 -007 -0518 -8. Meier, Eve. “White -Crowned and Golden -Crowned Sparrow.” Santa Clara Valley Audubon Society , S anta Clara Valley Audubon Society, 27 Jan. 2022, https://scvas.org/backyard – bird -blog/white -crowned -and -golden -crowned -sparrows. Thusius, Kevin J et al. “Male Mask Size Is Correlated with Mating Success in the Common Yellowthroat.” Animal behaviour 62.3 (2001): 435 –446. Web. Thomasson, Kelly . “ Game Theory.” University of California, Santa Barbara. Santa Barbara, CA. February 3 , 2022. Figures Sparrow Species/Age Wins Losses Golden Crowned Adults 9 1 Golden Crowned Immature 1 9 White Crowned Adults 86 16 White Crowned Immature 16 86 Table 1 : Table of the numerical data collected from observation showing the wins and losses of the adult vs. immature golden crowned sparrows and the adult vs. immature white crowned sparrows. Figure 1 : Bar graph showing the wins of the adult vs. immature golden crowned sparrows. Figure 2 : Bar graph showing the wins of the adult white crowned sparrows vs. the immature white crowned sparrows. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Golden Crowned Adults Golden Crowned Immature 0 20 40 60 80 100 White Crowned Adults White Crowned Immature X2 Observed Table Wins Losses Total (ni) White Crowned Adults 86 16 102 Golden Crowned Adults 9 1 10 Total (nj) 95 17 112 X2 Expected Table Wins Losses Total (ni) White Crowned Adults 86.51 15.48 102 Golden Crowned Adults 8.48 1.52 10 Total (nj) 95 17 112 Table 2 : Table showing the observed and expected values calculated to use in the chi squared test.
Please help me out with the two research paper review. I attached the rubric, 2 research paper, and 1 review worksheet. Please submit 2 review worksheet for each paper. Thanks.
Abstract In this study , I investigated the ef fect of age on social dominance in the species White-crowned Sparrows [ Zonotrichia leucophry s] and Golden-crowned Sparrows [ Zonotrichia atricapilla ]. I was interested in seeing how possible experience that comes with age may af fect an individual’ s fighting ability . I hypothesized that adult individuals would have more fighting experience that allowed them to win more interactions when placed against younger individuals.Likewise, their age-correlated plumage patterns may act as a signal of experience that allowsthem to dominate/intimidate younger individuals. I tested this by setting up four sites of bird feedin a birding site and observing interactions between dif ferent species of birds. A binomial test and chi test were conducted to see if there was a significant dif ference in win rates where dominance was shown between younger and adult individuals. I saw that the win rate of adultWhite-crowned Sparrows [ Zonotrichia leucophry s] and Golden-crowned Sparrows [ Zonotrichia atricapilla ] was significantly higher than immature individuals within and between species. From this, I concluded that older age is correlated with social dominance in birds. However , further studies are needed to determine whether this was a direct cause-and-ef fect relationship or if other factors are in play . Intr oduction Social dominance in birds leads to many important behavioral and ecological consequences. Not only do dominant birds correlate with higher survival but also higherreproductive success (LeBoeuf & Peterson 1969). Thus it is important to understand what phenotypic traits correlate with dominance and which ones af fect an individual’ s resource holding potential – an individual’ s ability to defend a resource. In many cases the higher an individual’ s RHP the higher a male’ s bird reproductive success (LeBoeuf & Peterson 1969). However , other factors such as experience can also contribute to an individual’ s ability to defend their resource( BIRD COMPETITION PROT OCOL: Interspecific Interactions and Social Dominance in Birds Study or ganism and methods, 2022 ). This experience may be indicated to other birds through age-correlated plumage patterns which is what this paper hopes to address. The species I decided to observe were the White-crowned Sparrows [ Zonotrichia leucophry s] and Golden-crowned Sparrows [ Zonotrichia atricapilla ] due to the fact that they have distinct age-correlated plumage patterns. The White-Crowned Sparrow breeds in Alaska and British Columbia in the spring and summer and migrates to Southern California in order toforage until they return back in Spring( BIRD COMPETITION PROT OCOL: Interspecific Interactions and Social Dominance in Birds Study or ganism and methods, 2022 ). The immature individuals have brown and tan crowns while adults have black and white striped crowns.Likewise, the Golden-Crowned Sparrow also has age-correlated plumage patterns with the adultshaving brighter black stripes and golden crowns while immature individuals keep a duller goldencrown and brown stripes(). The Golden-Crowned Sparrow breeds in habitats near the coast and mountains in Alaska and northwestern Canada and will migrate from southern British Columbia to northern Baja California in the winter(). Both these species were chosen for the recognizableage-correlated plumage patterns. Previous studies have addressed the importance of deciphering phenotypic traits in terms of social dominance, however many focus on sex and size leaving age a lesser -explored trait. In this paper , I hope to find a correlation between age and dominance and predict that adult individuals’ plumage will intimidate younger individuals and that their overall fighting experience will allow them to win most of the fights of dominance.Methods In order to collect the data, I went to a birding site at the South Coast Railroad Museum at the Historic Goleta Depot. At this site, four bags of bird feed were placed far away from each other . Observation began mid-afternoon for about 2 hours. W ithin these two hours, each bird feed site was monitored for approximately 30 minutes. During this observation time, therewasn’ t a lot of data able to be collected– didn’ t see anything during the data collection lab, so I used aggregated data from 2022 and 201 1. A two-tailed binomial test was conducted on this data between adults individuals of both species and immature individuals to see if the win rates were significantly dif ferent between the two groups. A chi test was also conducted in order to determine whether win ratios were dependent on age.Results After the observation was complete, it was seen that there were 218 instances in which there was an encounter between immature and mature individuals. Of those 218 instances, therewere 139 mature wins of dominance and 79 immature wins (figure 1). A two-tailed binomial test was performed and the resulting r critical value was 94 while the r -value was 79. Since r crit was greater than r , the null hypothesis can be rejected. This test was also conducted in r and the true probability of success was found to be 0.3623853 ( p-value of 5.833e-05) ensuring that we areable to reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant dif ference between the win rates of immature and mature individuals. The binomial distribution for the expected probability of 0.5 and actual probability of success 0.3623853 is represented by figure 2. A chi test was also conducted in r in order to see if dominance was dependent on age or not (if the win: lose ratio dif fers between the two age categories). Table 1 below shows the dif ferent wins and losses between the two groups. W e were able to see that dominance and age were, in fact, dependent and that dominance ratio dif fers between immature and mature groups (X 2= 70.23, X 2 crit= 3.841, df= 1, alpha= 0.05, X 2> X 2 crit). Discussion These results suggest that there is a correlation between dominance and age. Our results showed a significant dif ference between the win rate of adult sparrows and immature sparrows as seen by the binomial test. This suggests that age plays a part in the dominance of birds, however , we can not assume a direct cause and ef fect relationship since other factors can still be at play . Nonetheless, it’ s a step in the right direction for defining phenotypic traits as their ef fect on RHP and overall dominance. These individuals’ age-correlated plumage signals to other individuals that they hold the fighting experience and thus the other individual must decide where they standin relation. For the younger individuals that might mean backing of f or surrendering the resource they have if they deem the older individual as more dominant. The chi test also confirmed a relationship between dominance and age. In this case, the chi test showed that dominance and age are dependent (dominance – through win: loss ratio–does dif fer between adult and immature birds). This further shows that age does play a part in dominance, however , that part still remains undefined. All that can be said is that there is a correlation between the two and that promising new research should be done to directly definethe exact role that age plays in an individual’ s dominance. For a bird, social dominance is not only a means of obtaining resources but a means of ensuring future reproductive success and survival. Thus, examining this behavior and determining which phenotypic traits dominance is dependent on is an important field of research.Age is just one of the many factors that can lead to social dominance but defining it as anessential factor will help when trying to define other traits as factors in the future. Literatur e Cited 2022. BIRD COMPETITION PROT OCOL: Interspecific Interactions and Social Dominance in Bir ds Study or ganism and methods . EEMB 138. Golden-cr owned Sparr ow identification, all about bir ds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology . , All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology . (n.d.). Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www .allaboutbirds.or g/guide/Golden-crowned_Sparrow/id#:~:text=In%20summer%2C% 20adult%20Golden%2Dcrowned,obvious%20yellow%20on%20the%20crown.Leboeuf, B. J. & Peterson, R. S. (1969). Social status and mating activity in elephant seals.Science, 163, 91-93. Lindström, K., & Pampoulie, C. (2004). Ef fects of resource holding potential and resource value on tenure at nest sites in sand gobies. Behavioral Ecology ,16 (1), 70–74. https://doi.or g/10.1093/beheco/arh132 Figure 1This figure shows the dif ferences in wins based on age for the sparrows. Figure 2 – Actual vs. Expected Binomial Distribution This figure shows two binomial distributions. One for the actual probability of success seen fromthe data and one for the expected. As we can see here, the distributions are dif ferent. Table 1 – Chi-square tableW ins LossesTotalMature13923162Immature79108187Total218131349This table shows specifically the number of wins and losses for the two groups as well as thetotal amount of mature, immature birds, wins, and losses.

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